Testicular torsion
Twisting of the spermatic cord can interrupt blood supply to a testicle. This is a surgical emergency.
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Prostate and PSA
Stones: from pain to prevention
Living with urinary leakage
Fertility and treatment
Sexual health: asking questions
Prepare for your visit
Urological & kidney emergencies
Penile fracture
A traumatic tear in the covering of an erectile body, usually during an erection.
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Urinary retention
Failure to empty the bladder properly. Acute retention is sudden and often painful.
Read the guideKidney infection
An infection of the kidney, often spreading upwards from the lower urinary tract.
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Acute kidney injury
A rapid loss of kidney function caused by dehydration, severe infection, medicines or urinary blockage.
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Priapism
A prolonged erection unrelated to desire; the ischemic form threatens penile tissue.
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Infected urinary obstruction
Infection above a blockage, often a stone, can rapidly become life-threatening.
Read the guideUrinary-source sepsis
A severe response to urinary infection causing organ dysfunction.
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Fournier gangrene
A necrotising genital or perineal infection that can progress within hours.
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Paraphimosis
A retracted foreskin becomes trapped behind the glans, forming a tight ring.
Read the guideBlood clots and urinary retention
Blood clots can prevent the bladder from emptying.
Read the guideKidney, bladder and urethral trauma
Injury after accidents, falls, blows or penetrating wounds to the pelvis and urinary tract.
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HIV: testing and prevention
HIV affects immune defences.
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Urinary infection during pregnancy
Suspected infection in pregnancy needs prompt medical assessment.
Read the guideFunctional urology
Benign prostate enlargement
Non-cancerous prostate growth that may obstruct urine flow. Prostate size does not always match symptom severity.
Read the guideUrethral stricture
Scar-related narrowing of the tube carrying urine out of the bladder.
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Overactive bladder
Urgency that is difficult to postpone, with or without leakage, after considering other causes.
Read the guideHematuria — blood in urine
Red blood cells visible or found by testing; causes include infection, kidney disease and tumours.
Read the guideBladder pain syndrome — interstitial cystitis
Persistent bladder-region pain with urinary symptoms after other causes are excluded.
Read the guideNocturia — waking to urinate
Waking from sleep to pass urine due to bladder, urine-production or sleep factors.
Read the guideHydronephrosis
Dilation of the kidney collecting system, often obstructive but not always.
Read the guideKeeping a bladder diary
A record helps explain urinary patterns.
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Urinary leakage in men after prostate surgery
Leakage after prostate surgery deserves assessment and support. Recovery and its effect on daily life vary between patients.
Read the guideFemale urology & pelvic floor care
Stress urinary incontinence
Urine leakage caused by increased abdominal pressure, without a preceding urgent need to void.
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Cystocele and pelvic organ prolapse
Descent of one or more pelvic organs towards the vagina. A cystocele involves bladder support.
Read the guideUrological oncology
Prostate cancer
A malignant prostate tumour whose behaviour depends on its aggressiveness and extent.
Read the guideBladder cancer
A tumour of the bladder lining, commonly urothelial. Muscle involvement changes management.
Read the guideKidney tumours
A renal mass may be benign or malignant. Appearance, size and clinical context guide assessment.
Read the guideTesticular tumours
A testicular lesion needs prompt assessment to distinguish a tumour from cysts or other causes.
Read the guidePenile cancer
A rare penile tumour, often arising on the glans or foreskin.
Read the guideUpper urinary tract urothelial tumours
Tumours of the renal pelvis or ureter lining, distinct from kidney tissue cancer.
Read the guideProstate cancer: understanding active surveillance
For selected less aggressive localised cancers, organised monitoring can defer treatment while retaining the option to intervene if disease changes.
Read the guideUrinary stones
Urinary stones
Crystalline deposits, often formed in a kidney, that may move into the ureter.
Read the guideRenal colic
Pain caused by acute upper urinary obstruction, often from a ureteric stone.
Read the guideBladder stones
Stones in the bladder, often promoted by poor emptying or a foreign body.
Read the guideInfections & STIs
Cystitis and lower urinary infection
Usually a bacterial infection of the bladder, although burning can have non-infectious causes.
Read the guideKidney infection
An infection of the kidney, often spreading upwards from the lower urinary tract.
Read the guideProstatitis and chronic pelvic pain
Pain or inflammation involving the prostate region. Some forms are bacterial; chronic pelvic pain is not necessarily an infection.
Read the guideSexually transmitted infections
Infections transmitted through sexual contact, sometimes without symptoms.
Read the guideEpididymitis and epididymo-orchitis
Inflammation of the epididymis, sometimes the testis, often due to infection.
Read the guideBalanitis and balanoposthitis
Inflammation of the glans, sometimes the foreskin; infection is not the only cause.
Read the guideUrethritis
Urethral inflammation, often related to a sexually transmitted infection.
Read the guideChlamydia infection
A frequently silent bacterial STI that may affect reproductive organs and fertility.
Read the guideGonorrhoea
A bacterial STI affecting genitals, rectum, throat or eyes.
Read the guideGenital herpes
A viral infection with possible recurrent outbreaks; transmission can occur without visible lesions.
Read the guideGenital warts and HPV
Warts caused by selected papillomaviruses; usual wart types differ from the main cancer-associated types.
Read the guideSyphilis
A bacterial STI with multiple stages, sometimes silent for years.
Read the guideRecurrent cystitis
Repeated bladder infections, commonly defined as two in six months or three in a year.
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Urinary infection with a catheter
Catheters promote bacteria in urine, which does not always mean an infection needing treatment.
Read the guideHIV: testing and prevention
HIV affects immune defences.
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STIs: protection and testing
Sexually transmitted infections can go unnoticed.
Read the guideUrinary infection during pregnancy
Suspected infection in pregnancy needs prompt medical assessment.
Read the guideAndrology & fertility
Male infertility and azoospermia
Difficulty conceiving with a possible male contribution. Azoospermia means no sperm are found in the analysed ejaculate.
Read the guideVaricocele
Enlargement of veins around a testicle, more commonly on the left.
Read the guideTestosterone deficiency — hypogonadism
Confirmed hormonal deficiency with compatible symptoms; fatigue alone is insufficient.
Read the guideAzoospermia
Absence of sperm in the ejaculate, requiring laboratory confirmation.
Read the guideLow sperm count, motility and morphology abnormalities
Changes in sperm concentration, movement or shape.
Read the guideRetrograde ejaculation
Semen passes into the bladder instead of outwards, sometimes after surgery or nerve injury.
Read the guidePreserving fertility before treatment
Some cancer treatments can affect sperm production or ejaculation. Discuss fertility before treatment, even when parenthood is a distant possibility.
Read the guideGenital & groin surgery
Hydrocele and epididymal cysts
A hydrocele is fluid around a testicle; an epididymal cyst arises in the epididymis.
Read the guidePhimosis
A foreskin that is difficult or impossible to retract. Non-retractability may be normal in young children.
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Inguinal or inguinoscrotal hernia
Abdominal tissue protrudes through a weak area in the groin, sometimes extending into the scrotum.
Read the guideTesticular torsion
Twisting of the spermatic cord can interrupt blood supply to a testicle. This is a surgical emergency.
Read the guidePenile fracture
A traumatic tear in the covering of an erectile body, usually during an erection.
Read the guideGenital lichen sclerosus
An inflammatory skin disease affecting vulva or penis; it is not an STI.
Read the guideSexual health
Erectile dysfunction
Repeated difficulty obtaining or keeping an erection adequate for satisfactory sexual activity.
Read the guideEjaculation difficulties
These include distressing early ejaculation with poor control, marked delay or absent ejaculation.
Read the guideLow sexual desire
Persistent low desire warrants support when it causes distress. Desire naturally varies and is not always a disorder.
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Peyronie’s disease
Acquired scarring of the covering of the erectile bodies can change the shape of an erect penis.
Read the guideSexual pain and penetration difficulties
Pain with sexual activity or involuntary tightening that makes penetration difficult. Physical and emotional factors may coexist.
Read the guidePremature ejaculation
Ejaculation experienced as too early, with limited control and personal or relationship distress.
Read the guideDelayed or absent ejaculation
Persistent difficulty ejaculating despite subjectively adequate stimulation.
Read the guideVaginismus
Involuntary pelvic-floor tightening makes penetration difficult or painful.
Read the guideVulvodynia
Persistent vulval pain without a clear identifiable cause after assessment, often lasting at least three months.
Read the guideVaginal dryness and genitourinary syndrome of menopause
Hormonal decline can change vulvovaginal and urinary tissues; dryness also has other causes.
Read the guideSexual health after urological cancer
Cancer and its treatment can affect desire, erection, ejaculation and body image.
Read the guideChronic male pelvic pain
Persistent pelvic pain, often multifactorial without proven bacterial infection.
Read the guideBlood in semen: haematospermia
Semen may look red or brown.
Read the guideNeuro-urology & bladder emptying
Neurogenic bladder
Disrupted urine storage or emptying caused by a nervous-system condition.
Read the guideUrinary retention
Failure to empty the bladder properly. Acute retention is sudden and often painful.
Read the guideNephrology & kidney health
Chronic kidney disease
Kidney damage or reduced filtration lasting at least three months; progression may be painless.
Read the guideDiabetic kidney disease
Diabetes can progressively damage small blood vessels and kidney filters.
Read the guideHigh blood pressure and kidneys
High blood pressure can damage kidneys, while kidney disease can raise blood pressure.
Read the guideGlomerulonephritis
Inflammation of microscopic kidney filters, sometimes related to infection or immune disease.
Read the guideIgA nephropathy — Berger disease
Immunoglobulin A deposits in kidney filters can cause inflammation.
Read the guideAdult nephrotic syndrome
Heavy urinary protein loss causes low blood albumin.
Read the guideLupus nephritis
Inflammatory kidney involvement in lupus, an autoimmune disease.
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Polycystic kidney disease
A genetic disorder with multiple kidney cysts, distinct from an isolated simple cyst.
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Simple and complex kidney cysts
A cyst is a fluid-filled pocket. Simple cysts are usually benign; complex lesions need characterisation.
Read the guideLiving with one kidney
One kidney can provide adequate function after congenital absence, donation or surgery.
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Proteinuria and albuminuria
Excess urine protein, particularly albumin, is a marker rather than a diagnosis by itself.
Read the guideAnemia in kidney disease
Kidney disease can reduce erythropoietin, the hormone supporting red-cell production; other causes may coexist.
Read the guideMineral and bone disorder in kidney disease
Kidney disease can disturb phosphate, calcium, vitamin D and parathyroid hormone regulation.
Read the guideRenal artery stenosis
Narrowing of an artery supplying a kidney, commonly from atherosclerosis or fibromuscular dysplasia.
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Advanced kidney failure: dialysis and transplantation
When kidney function becomes insufficient, replacement therapy or individual conservative care may be discussed.
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Medullary sponge kidney
Dilation of small collecting ducts in the kidney medulla may promote stones and infection.
Read the guideRenal amyloidosis
Abnormal protein deposits in the kidneys, sometimes affecting several organs.
Read the guideRenal tubular acidosis
Kidney tubules fail to maintain acid-base balance, sometimes with potassium abnormalities.
Read the guidePaediatric urology
Urinary tract infection in children
Bladder or kidney infection with age-dependent signs.
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Vesicoureteral reflux
Urine flows backwards from the bladder into one or both ureters, sometimes reaching the kidneys.
Read the guideBedwetting
Urine leakage during sleep beyond the expected age of night-time continence, usually from five years.
Read the guideUndescended testicle — cryptorchidism
One or both testes are outside the scrotum; a retractile testicle is different.
Read the guideHypospadias
The urinary opening is on the underside of the penis rather than at its tip.
Read the guidePelviureteric junction obstruction
Impaired drainage between the kidney pelvis and ureter, sometimes detected before birth.
Read the guidePosterior urethral valves
Congenital obstructing urethral folds in boys that may affect bladder and kidneys.
Read the guideDaytime voiding problems and constipation in children
Bladder and bowel problems may coexist, with habitual holding or poor coordination.
Read the guideTests, prevention & follow-up
Urine culture — urinalysis and microbiology
Testing for cells and bacteria, with culture and susceptibility testing when relevant.
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PSA and early prostate cancer detection
PSA is a prostate protein measured in blood; a raised value does not equal cancer.
Read the guideSemen analysis and fertility assessment
Semen testing assesses volume, sperm concentration, movement and shape.
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Kidney, bladder and prostate ultrasound
An ultrasound examination without X-rays, sometimes including urine remaining after voiding.
Read the guideCystoscopy
Inspection of the urethra and bladder using a thin optical instrument.
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Uroflowmetry and urodynamics
Uroflowmetry records the urine stream; urodynamics assesses bladder pressure and function for selected questions.
Read the guidePreventing recurrent stones
Prevention depends on stone composition and urinary or metabolic risk factors.
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Prostate MRI and biopsy
MRI assesses suspicious areas; indicated biopsies collect tissue for laboratory analysis.
Read the guidePrepare for your appointment
A few notes help the conversation.
Read the guideTesticles: notice changes and seek assessment
A lump, enlargement or change in texture deserves examination. An abnormality does not automatically mean cancer.
Read the guideThis general information does not replace a consultation. Tests and treatments are selected for each individual; they are not a routine checklist.